English – BAA Training

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Enter the PAPI—a visual system designed to help pilots maintain the correct glide path during approach. Easy to spot yet precise, PAPI lights are one of the first tools student pilots learn to interpret, and they remain just as vital for experienced airline captains. In this article, we’ll break down what PAPI is, how it works, and why it’s an essential skill for any pilot to master.

What is PAPI

The Precision Approach Path Indicator—or more widely abbreviated as PAPI—is a visual aid system installed at airports to help pilots maintain the correct approach angle during landing. You’ll usually find a row of four lights positioned next to the runway, typically on the left-hand side.

Each light projects either red or white, depending on the pilot’s approach angle. By quickly glancing at the combination of colors, a pilot can tell whether they’re too high, too low, or right on the correct glide path. The “sweet spot” is two white and two red lights—a simple but highly effective way to ensure a safe and stable approach.

PAPI lights seen from the cockpit on landing

PAPI was introduced in the late 20th century as an improvement over the older Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI). While VASI systems also used color-coded lights, they provided less precise feedback. PAPI’s four-light system allows for more accuracy and easier interpretation, which is why it has become the global standard at airports big and small.

How PAPI Works

At its core, PAPI is all about providing a visual glide path to the runway. The lights are installed in a row of four, each angled slightly differently so that they appear either white or red depending on the pilot’s approach. So no, they do not light up in different colors, somehow knowing at what height and angle the pilot is approaching the touchdown zone.

Each of the four light units consists of:

(1) a light source,

(2) a red filter, and

(3) two lenses.

The lower part of the beam is red (5), and the upper half of that same beam is white (4).

Diagram of PAPI light unit — PAPI lights: an inside look.

The lights are typically installed at a 3-degree angle, which is the target glide slope for a gentle descent angle, striking a balance between safety and efficiency. But airports can make that angle steeper if there is an obstacle clearance needed.

A good example is the London City Airport. Pilots landing here often face a descent angle of up to 5.5 degrees—much steeper than the standard. While certain aircraft, like the Embraer E190 and Airbus A318, are cleared to handle it, it’s not just about the planes.

Aircraft landing at London City Airport.

Because of the airport’s shorter runway, nearby buildings, and unique terrain, specialized avionics, aircraft certification, and extra crew training are all part of the package. In fact, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) granted special permission for this steeper descent—mainly to make sure aircraft clear Canary Wharf’s skyline on the way in.

Reading PAPI Lights

When the aircraft is aligned with the 3-degree slope, two lights appear white and two appear red. If the aircraft climbs above this angle, more lights appear white; if it descends below, more lights appear red:

Four white lights → Too high.
Three white, one red → Slightly high.
Two white, two red → On glide path.
One white, three red → Slightly low.
Four red lights → Too low.

Mnemonic pilots use to help remember PAPI lights — A (slightly morbid) mnemonic pilots use to remember PAPI lights.

Why PAPI Matters for a Student Pilot

For student pilots, mastering landings is one of the biggest challenges in flight training. PAPI lights serve as a reliable visual guide, helping to build confidence and precision in this critical phase.

Visual Awareness – see your aircraft’s position relative to the runway.
Safer Landings – early feedback allows minor corrections before they become problems.
Bridge Between Instruments & Visual – smooth transition from instrument flying to outside cues.
Confidence Booster – knowing your glide path reduces stress and helps focus on other landing factors.

Ultimately, PAPI is a training tool that teaches precision, safety, and situational awareness. For pilots-in-training, learning to read these lights effectively is a milestone that sets the foundation for a lifetime of safe landings.

PAPI Isn’t Always the Right Cue

While the Precision Approach Path Indicator is a convenient and easy-to-read system, there are some nuances that pilots often notice.

PAPI lights project in the shape of a cone. Far out on approach, the cone is wide, so it takes a significant change in altitude to move from, say, two white–two red lights to three or four whites. As you get closer to the runway, the cone narrows and those same light changes correspond to much smaller altitude differences.

What this means in practice is that in the last 200–300 feet, pilots may find that the PAPI lights shift quickly, but those small changes often aren’t critical. Many pilots instead focus on the touchdown zone, checking that their intended landing point is still aligned correctly, even if the PAPI shows three white or three red lights.

During full flight simulator training, it’s common for trainees to rely heavily on PAPI. When moving from sim training to real-world line operations, many pilots notice that overemphasizing the lights can become a habit. Experienced pilots often use PAPI to establish a good approach position, then shift focus to visual cues from the runway itself for the final few hundred feet.

In other words, PAPI is an excellent guide—but like many tools in aviation, it’s most effective when combined with visual judgment and experience, rather than used in isolation.

Bottom Line

PAPI lights are a trusted visual guide that helps pilots approach the runway safely and accurately. They help maintain the correct glide path and bridge the gap between instruments and what you see outside the cockpit. Combine PAPI cues with careful observation, gentle corrections, and a steady hand, and you’ll land like a pro every time. After all, every pilot starts with the lights—but the truly skilled know when to trust their own judgment.

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But with its recent update to the task-to-tool model, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) has proposed a change: training tasks no longer have to be matched with the most expensive simulator, but with the most appropriate one.

It’s a deceptively simple idea with far-reaching consequences: more innovative use of simulators, lower training costs, and more agile programs—without compromising safety. How can training organizations strike the balance between fidelity, flexibility, and cost?

The EASA Task-to-Tool Model Explained

EASA’s proposed update to the flight simulation training device requirements introduces a new way of classifying and deploying simulators through the Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD) Capability Signature (FCS). This framework defines a simulator’s capability and fidelity across specific features—such as performance in different flight regimes, flight control hardware fidelity, or system operation accuracy.

In practice, this means each training device is assessed not only as a whole, but feature by feature, offering a more transparent picture of what it can (and cannot) deliver in training.

“The FCS provides a common language for training organizations and regulators,” says Vytautas Ledakas, Chief Simulator Training Officer at BAA Training. “It makes it clearer which simulator is best suited for which task, which in turn allows us to design training programs with far greater accuracy.”

The heart of the update is the task-to-tool concept. Training providers must now match each Type Rating or recurrent training task with a device that meets or exceeds the required FCS-defined capability. In other words, the training objective comes first, and the choice of device follows—rather than defaulting to the highest-level simulator.

For example, cockpit familiarization, flows, and checklist discipline might be effectively introduced in lower-cost devices, while complex handling tasks or failure scenarios remain firmly in the domain of the FFS.

“This doesn’t diminish the role of the FFS,” notes Ledakas. “It ensures the full flight simulator is used where it adds the most value, while other tasks can be trained effectively in less resource-intensive devices. It’s about optimization, not replacement.”

A Strategic Shift in Simulator Use

Beyond cost efficiency, the model promotes a more balanced simulator ecosystem. Instead of overloading FFS schedules and driving up costs, training organizations can distribute tasks across a portfolio of devices aligned with ICAO Doc 9625 criteria, which EASA is harmonizing toward.

“The new approach allows Approved Training Organizations (ATOs) in Europe to rethink their long-term simulator strategies,” says Ledakas. “By integrating a mix of fixed-base trainers, and full flight simulators, we can deliver training that is scalable, cost-effective, and fully compliant.

“We ourselves are already working within a similar approach, and our clients as well are utilizing it. We see this especially with our Level 2 FTDs in Paris and Barcelona training centers, where they are used extensively for procedures, flows, and coordination training. That resilience is especially valuable at a time when demand for pilot training is growing.”

Importantly, there are no immediate changes to existing programs. Approved training courses and simulators remain valid, with a two-year transition period giving ATOs and operators time to adapt. Early adopters, however, can already start applying the FCS framework voluntarily.

Implications for Instructors

For instructors, this shift requires adapting to a more multi-platform teaching environment. Their role expands from delivering content to also understanding which device is best suited for each training objective.

That means:

Gaining proficiency across different types of FSTDs;
Strengthening debriefing skills to ensure lessons from one platform transfer effectively to others;
Staying updated on how the FCS framework evolves and how regulators expect it to be applied in practice.

“Instructors will increasingly act as both educators and strategists,” Ledakas points out. “Their expertise will be critical in ensuring that a session in a lower-level simulator delivers the intended outcomes and complements what’s later reinforced in an FFS.”

Looking Ahead

By introducing the FCS and task-to-tool concept, EASA has signaled a modernization of simulator regulation that balances safety, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness. The harmonization with ICAO further ensures global consistency, helping European training providers remain competitive in the international training market. Full flight simulators remain essential—what changes is how ATOs integrate them into a smarter, layered training system that serves both safety and sustainability.

Since its launch in 2023, the MPL program has been designed not just to train pilots, but to prepare them for the realities of modern airline operations from their very first lesson. By combining advanced simulator sessions, competency-based training, and the direct involvement of airline instructors, cadets transition more quickly and confidently into airline First Officer roles.

“The essence of this training program is about giving cadets the tools, mindset, and airline experience they need from the start,” said Vytautas Jankauskas, Managing Director at BAA Training Vietnam. “The result is a new generation of pilots who are better prepared for the demands of commercial aviation—and that means a stronger, more resilient future for the industry. We’re delighted to see the cadets from our MPL training program with Bamboo Airways graduate with quality education and experience under their belts.”

At the event, Mr. Truong Phuong Thanh, CEO of Bamboo Airways, congratulated the first MPL cadets on their graduation.

“In the past, pilot training in Vietnam was conducted entirely overseas. Nowadays, with the authorization of the Civil Aviation Authority of Vietnam and the training partnership between BAA Training Vietnam and Bamboo Airways, we have successfully launched domestic pilot training programs,” he remarked. “Bamboo Airways is proud to welcome these graduates to our team of pilots and looks forward to seeing them continually hone their skills and professionalism, ensuring safe and efficient flights in the future.”

A key advantage of the MPL approach is the heavy reliance on advanced simulators. This allows cadets to experience complex, unusual, or high-risk flight scenarios in a safe environment—situations they might rarely encounter during traditional flight training. It also ensures consistent training capacity, independent of weather conditions or aircraft availability, while giving airlines confidence that graduates can handle the full spectrum of operational challenges.

With aviation growth accelerating in the region, programs like the one in Vietnam demonstrate how tailored, airline-partnered training can close the gap between demand and supply of qualified pilots. For cadets, it represents a direct route to the flight deck. For the industry, it marks a step toward long-term sustainability in pilot development.

Today’s modern jets rely on the fly-by-wire system, a technology that swaps mechanical linkages for electronic signals. This shift has not only changed how aircraft are flown but also made flying safer, lighter, and more efficient. We’re ready to unpack what fly-by-wire means, where it came from, and why it’s the preferred standard in aviation today.

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What Does Fly-By-Wire Actually Mean?

Fly-By-Wire this, Fly-By-Wire that—many use the term at any given time when talking about aircraft. But what is Fly-By-Wire? To start, it’s a type of flight control system. Mainly, aircraft can have mechanical, hydro-mechanical, powered (power-assisted), and fully electronic control systems, with hybrid arrangements in some aircraft models. If it has the word “wire” in it, it must mean cables, the “traditional” way, or mechanical way, of operating aircraft, right? Well, no.

The “wire” in Fly-By-Wire (or FBW) actually refers to the electrical wiring and signals that are used to transmit the pilot’s flight control inputs to the aircraft control surface. So, no cables, no pulleys, meaning FBW is a fully electronic control system.

When Was Fly-By-Wire Invented

Now, Fly-By-Wire has become almost synonymous with modern aviation and commercial aircraft, but it draws from draft designs of military aircraft. The FBW systems first emerged in the mid-20th century, initially tested in military aviation.

Roots In Military Aviation

The milestone moment came in 1972, when NASA modified an F-8 Crusader to fly with a fully digital Fly-By-Wire setup—no mechanical backup included.

A 1972 Vought F-8 Crusader — The modified Vought F-9 Crusader fighter jet with the early FBW system.

The early Fly-By-Wire system actually borrowed guidance and control technology from the Apollo space program, adapting it for use in aircraft. The motivation was clear: traditional controls were heavy, complex, and prone to failure. Fly-By-Wire provided a lighter, more dependable, and more efficient way to manage flight.

The first production plane to fully embrace digital FBW was the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon in the 1970s. Its designers intentionally made the jet aerodynamically unstable to improve maneuverability, and the computerized flight controls supplied the stability needed to keep it safely in the air.

Soon after, Fly-By-Wire crossed into commercial aviation. The Airbus A320, introduced in 1988, became the first airliner to use a fully digital system. It also introduced flight envelope protections—automated safeguards that prevent unsafe pilot commands—ushering in a new standard of safety for passenger flights.

How a Fly-By-Wire Control System Works?

At its core, FBW replaces the traditional web of mechanical cables and pulleys with an electronic control system. Instead of a direct physical link, pilot inputs (or autopilot) are processed by onboard computers, which then command the aircraft’s control surface through electrical signals.

A schematic of the Fly-By-Wire system — A schematic of the FBW system.

Here’s how it works in practice:

Pilot input: Moving the control column or sidestick generates an electronic signal.
Computer processing: The flight control computers (FCCs) interpret the pilot commands and figure out the intended maneuver.
Flight control surface movement: The computers calculate how the elevators, ailerons, rudder, and other flight control surfaces should move, while applying control laws to maintain stability and ensure flight safety.
Actuator response: Commands are sent to flight control surface actuators, which physically move the surfaces.
Feedback loop: Sensors monitor the surfaces in real time, sending data back to the computers to correct any deviations.
Safety protections: Many systems include flight envelope protections that prevent unsafe maneuvers and automatic stability features that can assist without additional pilot inputs.
Redundancy: Multiple computers and signal channels provide backup, ensuring the aircraft remains controllable even if one system fails.

In short, FBW replaces heavy, failure-prone mechanical linkages with an electronic feedback loop—delivering faster responses, greater precision, and enhanced safety.

Examples of Fly-By-Wire Aircraft

Fly-By-Wire might be most famously linked with Airbus, but it’s far from an Airbus-only technology. Yes, Airbus was the first manufacturer to introduce it into commercial service, but today FBW is the rule rather than the exception across new-generation airliners, military jets, and even business aircraft.

Some of the popular aircraft types with the FBW system.

Here are some examples where fly-by-wire has become standard:

Commercial Airliners

Airbus A320 family (A318, A319, A320, A321): the pioneer of digital FBW in commercial service, introduced in 1988.
Airbus A330, A350 XWB, and A380: all equipped with highly advanced FBW systems.
Boeing 777 and 787 Dreamliner: Boeing’s long-haul flagships, both using digital FBW with strong flight envelope protections.
Embraer E2 Jet Family (E175-E2, E190-E2, E195-E2): regional jets that adopted FBW for smoother handling and efficiency.
Embraer Legacy 450/500 (Praetor 500/600): business jets featuring modern FBW controls.
Dassault Falcon 7X: the first business jet to fly with FBW.

Military Aircraft

General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon: the first operational fighter to go digital with FBW.
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and F-22 Raptor: stealth fighters where FBW is central to their extreme agility.
Boeing F/A-18 Hornet and F-15E Strike Eagle: both incorporate FBW for improved control.
NASA’s F-8 Crusader (1972): the historic testbed that proved digital FBW could work in fixed-wing aircraft.

Seeing how widespread FBW has become, it’s easy to assume everyone has a clear picture of how it works. In reality, the system is often surrounded by myths and half-truths that can make it seem more mysterious than it really is.

Misconceptions About FBW System

Fly-By-Wire only refers to the Airbus flight control style.

Both Airbus and Boeing rely on FBW, though they’ve chosen different approaches. Boeing kept the familiar control yoke, while Airbus opted for side-sticks—but underneath, both are powered by the same core technology.

Fly-By-Wire means the pilot has less control, or the computer “flies the plane.”

FBW doesn’t override pilot commands; it enhances them. The system interprets inputs, adds stability, and blocks unsafe maneuvers, but every action still comes from the pilot. Think of it as technology that strengthens, not replaces, human control.

FBW systems are inherently risky due to reliance on electronics.

Redundancy is the name of the game. Multiple computers, backup channels, and fail-safes make FBW not only reliable but often safer than older, purely mechanical setups.

Fly-By-Wire eliminates all mechanical backups.

While the main controls are electronic, FBW aircraft typically carry layers of redundancy—backup computers, independent power sources, and in some cases, even limited mechanical or hydraulic systems to keep things safe in a worst-case scenario.

Fly-By-Wire vs Cable

Fly-By-Wire and traditional cable-based flight control systems offer two very different approaches to managing an aircraft. We already know that in FBW aircraft, pilot inputs are converted into electronic signals that are interpreted by flight control computers. These computers don’t just take the pilot’s inputs and direct the flight control surface actuators to move the control surfaces. They can also coordinate engine controls to optimize performance and maintain stability. Traditional cable systems work differently: pilot commands travel through rods, pulleys, and control cables, creating a direct physical connection to the surfaces.

One clear advantage of FBW technology is its weight savings. By replacing mechanical linkages with computers, Fly-By-Wire airplanes can be lighter, use smaller stabilizers, and make more efficient use of the airframe. Mechanical systems, with their network of cables and pulleys, remain heavier and less streamlined. Conventional mechanical systems, with their network of cables, pulleys, and hydraulic lines, are naturally heavier.

Safety and flight protection are also major differences. FBW-based aircraft use control laws programmed into the flight control computers, providing stability augmentation, flight envelope protection, and system redundancy. Mechanical systems offer no automatic safeguards—pilots are fully responsible—but failures tend to be gradual rather than sudden.

Handling characteristics are another area where FBW shines. Fly-By-Wire controls allow responsiveness and stability to be fine-tuned by software, while conventional mechanical controls rely solely on aircraft design. FBW aircraft use artificial control forces to simulate feel, whereas cable systems provide direct tactile feedback to the pilot via the control column or control wheel.

Maintenance approaches differ as well. FBW systems require specialized knowledge of electronics and software diagnostics, while cable-based mechanical controls demand regular physical inspections and adjustments to cables, pulleys, and hydraulic systems.

Bottom Line

Fly-By-Wire has changed how aircraft are flown. Computers replace heavy mechanical linkages, making FBW airplanes lighter, more responsive, and safer. Pilot commands are interpreted and sent to the flight control surfaces, while protections prevent unsafe maneuvers—all without taking control away from the pilot.

Compared to cable-based systems, FBW offers greater precision, flexibility, and reliability. Mechanical setups give direct tactile feedback but lack the advanced handling and safety features of Fly-By-Wire technology.

Now standard in commercial and military aircraft, FBW is the backbone of modern aviation—ensuring smoother handling, enhanced safety, and control that was once unimaginable.

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A Start of It All

Esra grew up in a neighborhood near an airport, which she credits as the spark that ignited her passion for aviation.

“Every day, I was hearing planes flying above my head. Watching those planes fly over our home by the seaside, right before landing, was one of my favorite things to do on weekends. I think that was the key moment in my life that sparked my admiration for aviation, particularly in understanding how aircraft operate. In the end, this led me to engineering, which is undoubtedly the best way to learn how things operate.”

Her fascination deepened when she visited an aviation museum in Istanbul.

“I was maybe nine or ten when I saw a very old cockpit of a fighter jet for the first time. To say that I was enchanted by the view is an understatement. I think that was the time when I knew I wanted to be in the cockpit again. Then, I saw a real cockpit and flight simulators when I started working in aviation, and it felt very fulfilling to finally do it again after many years since that first moment.”

Esra went on to pursue a Bachelor’s degree in Manufacturing Engineering in Istanbul, beginning her career as a Cabin Interior Maintenance Engineer. Soon after, she decided to continue her education in France.

“France is one of the biggest aviation hubs in the world, so it was an easy decision for me regarding my postgraduate studies. I studied Industry 4.0 in Paris for my degree—it gave me a strong foundation in the latest technological advancements, and their applications across various industries. And finally, I found myself at BAA Training France as an Engineer for full flight simulators.”

Working as an Aviation Engineer

What drew Esra to join BAA Training? For her, it was the pilot training academy’s positive reputation and forward-thinking approach, which made it a perfect fit for her. At the training center, she focuses on enhancing the performance and reliability of simulators—where no two days are ever the same.

“It’s full of surprises for us,” Esra shares. “Sometimes a curious trainee may push an emergency button, or the simulator itself wants to take a coffee break in the middle of a training session! To be honest, I think it’s the main charm of a job like this.”

Since training runs 24/7, her schedule depends on whether she’s on a day or night shift. Engineers use designated windows to carry out maintenance, troubleshoot issues, or assemble newly arrived simulators. A key part of the role is following strict procedures to ensure simulators accurately replicate real aircraft behavior—this includes running QTG tests and regular maintenance checks.

“I start my work by briefing my colleagues, checking engineering handovers and my emails, OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturers) portals, and our internal management tool, regardless of the shift I’m on. Once I organize my tasks to perform, I jump straight into working on them.”

For a full flight simulator engineer, there’s a variety of skills that they need to have, Esra notes. Analytical thinking, troubleshooting skills, electrical, electronic, as well as mechanical systems knowledge, among others.

“Personally, I think computer skills are the most helpful ones for the technical side of things. Besides that, teamwork and communication are the two soft skills that are super important in my role, and not a day goes by that I don’t use them.”

What she finds most satisfying, however, goes beyond just the technical.

“Every time I go to an airfield, I’m always impressed by the vast aviation world I’m a part of—from ground staff to aircraft maintenance technicians, from civil aviation to firefighting… And as an engineer, some of the most satisfying moments are when I solve a problem, finish a project, or make progress on a topic in my work.”

Being a Woman in Aviation Engineering—Both Challenging and Empowering

While engineering is a demanding field in itself, Esra notes that being a woman in the industry brings unique challenges—though also opportunities for growth.

“This means that if you do something well—or make a mistake—it may be attributed to your gender, which is, unfortunately, still rarely the case for engineers who are men,” she highlights. “I have encountered moments where people assumed I wasn’t technical enough or mistook me for someone who’s not in an engineering role.

“These biases can be frustrating, but I’ve learned to respond with patience and professionalism. They also push me to grow stronger and more confident in my abilities. I’ve learned to embrace my uniqueness as a person, focusing on what I bring to the table and showing my expertise through my work, rather than trying to change perceptions directly. Over time, consistent performance and confidence help us break those stereotypes. That mindset helps me stay grounded and proud of my journey.”

The key, she says, is to stay curious and motivated.

“Keep learning, and never let any stereotypes define your own path. What’s really nice to see is that the number of women engineers in the industry is increasing every day, and the industry is slowly—but surely—evolving to be more inclusive. I’ve met many supportive colleagues along the way, and I believe these stereotypical thoughts will change over time with the progress we see.”

Her advice for women thinking of stepping into the world of aviation: stand proud to be yourself.

“I grew up hearing my mother say, ‘You’re not everyone, you’re Esra,’ whenever I felt down about not being able to do something everyone else did. This is how I learned to find my own way. So, I would say the same thing to all the women as well: you’re not everyone, you’re you. Don’t view yourself from the perspective of others.”

Esra’s journey shows how determination, curiosity, and resilience can turn early childhood dreams into a meaningful career in aviation engineering. Her story is a reminder that growth often comes from solving problems—both on technical and personal levels.

Want to learn more about the people behind our training excellence? Read our interview with Joaquin Alejandro Suescun Atencio, Head of Ab Initio Operations, where he shares insights into his role and the intricate behind-the-scenes of shaping future pilots.

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When a Type Rating instructor has recently handled a crosswind landing in a congested airspace or navigated a system failure at cruising altitude, their instruction carries a different weight. Firsthand operational experience brings nuance and realism to the classroom—something manuals and simulated scenarios can’t necessarily be fully replicated. This is one reason airline pilots who also instruct are valued in training environments.

As the aviation industry faces an ongoing demand for new pilots—Boeing’s outlook projected more than 600,000 new commercial pilots will be needed globally by 2042—the quality and relevance of training are under scrutiny. Instructors who actively fly bring current procedures, real-world problem-solving, and operational awareness into their sessions. At the same time, teaching reinforces their own technical precision, decision-making, and leadership. The result is a mutually beneficial dynamic—one that strengthens both the next generation of pilots and those already flying the line.

According to Marcos Giner, Deputy Chief Flight Instructor for Type Rating Training at BAA Training, the key value of having active airline pilots as instructors is their ability to translate operational realities into the training environment, often in real time.

“From my experience at BAA Training, I constantly see the true value of having active airline pilots as instructors. You can teach a checklist—or you can explain what it feels like to run that checklist under pressure at 35,000 feet in turbulence. That’s the difference,” he says.

Pilots currently flying the line are not only up to date with SOPs and aircraft systems, they’re also familiar with the subtle shifts that happen in daily operations. This includes recent ATC patterns, airline-specific nuances, or issues that arise in flight data monitoring reports. These details can elevate a session from a foundational to an impactful one.

“Students tend to engage more when they see the relevance,” he adds. “It’s not theory for them anymore. It’s the world they’re about to step into.”

Interestingly, the benefit flows both ways. For instructors, teaching is a form of professional reinforcement.

“The moment you start teaching, you realize how many things you just do without thinking. Explaining those steps forces you to reflect—and sharpen,” Giner touches on the point. “When pilots switch between operational flying and instructional duties, they become more disciplined in how they brief, communicate, and make decisions. There’s less room for complacency. You become more deliberate. Whether it’s managing an abnormal situation or briefing a junior First Officer, the clarity you develop from instructing shows up in your cockpit behavior.”

This cycle—fly, teach, reflect, refine—isn’t just beneficial for instructors personally. It, too, reinforces standardization and safer behaviors within airline operations. Beyond technical knowledge, teaching has a ripple effect on soft skills.

“Instructors often find themselves coaching more than just flying technique,” Giner notes. “You’re shaping communication habits, decision-making styles, and how someone responds to stress.”

These are core components of Crew Resource Management (CRM), and instructors who are also active pilots carry those lessons with them back into the flight deck. They tend to become more patient, more structured in their communication, and more proactive in creating a positive cockpit environment.

“There’s a level of emotional intelligence that comes from teaching that doesn’t always develop through line flying alone,” he says.

This, in turn, fosters a stronger training and safety culture across the airline—not just in the sim, but on the line itself.

The dual-role dynamic brings immediate relevance to training and reinforces operational excellence on the line. It’s a proven, effective approach that keeps both instruction and airline operations grounded in real-world application. Its continued support and refinement are key to developing adaptable, safety-minded pilots for the demands of today’s flight deck.

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These vital components form the foundation of aircraft design, allowing the plane to generate lift, stay balanced in the sky, and return to the ground safely during takeoff and landing. No matter how complex the aircraft may seem, its primary function is built around the same core aerodynamic forces and structural elements.

In this quick guide, we’ll break down the main components of an aircraft—from the fuselage to the landing gear—and highlight how these parts appear across both small training aircraft and large airliners. You’ll discover how flight controls, airplane wings, aircraft engines, and other critical systems vary between models, yet remain based on the same aviation principles. Shall we take off?

Fuselage, the Backbone of Flight

If an airplane were a story, the fuselage would be the main plotline—connecting everything from the cockpit drama to the tail-end resolution. This is the airplane’s main body, the central structure that ties all other parts together. It houses the flight crew, passengers, cargo, and often some of the aircraft’s most critical systems. It’s also where the forces of lift, drag, and thrust come together to decide whether you’re staying aloft or heading back to Earth.

Aircraft fuselages of Cessna 172S and Airbus A320

In the Cessna 172S, for example, the fuselage is compact and functional, built with aluminum materials for strength without unnecessary weight. It seats four and offers excellent visibility, ideal for student pilots learning the ropes. The A320, on the other hand, plays in a different league. Its composite and aluminum fuselage is pressurized and stretched for efficiency, with a rear fuselage that supports cargo holds, cabin systems, and auxiliary power units (APUs).

Despite their size difference, both aircraft rely on their fuselage to maintain structural integrity, protect onboard systems, and provide aerodynamic shape that helps reduce drag. Think of it as the reliable spine of the aircraft—everything else hinges on it.

Quick Facts: Fuselage

Also known as: The aircraft’s main body
Primary function: Houses the cockpit, passenger cabin, cargo, and connects all major parts
Materials used: Typically aluminum, composite materials, or both—chosen for structural integrity and fuel efficiency
Shape matters: Designed to be sleek and aerodynamic to reduce drag and improve performance
Bonus trivia: “Fuselage” comes from the French word fuselé, meaning “streamlined”—and that’s no coincidence

Wings, the Lift-Makers

Wings are the soul of flight. Quite literally the reason airplanes leave the ground in the first place. Their primary function is to generate lift by manipulating air pressure: air moves faster over the curved upper surface, creating lower pressure, while the slower-moving air underneath creates higher pressure. The result? Up you go, like magic—or, more accurately, physics.

On an aircraft like a Cessna, wings sit high, meaning they’re mounted above the fuselage. This provides better downward visibility, more ground clearance, and inherent stability—a dream for student pilots. Its wing structure is clean and straightforward, with fixed wing flaps on the trailing edge to help with slower speeds during takeoff and landing.

Aircraft wings of Cessna 172S and Airbus A320

Commercial jets like A320, however, flip the script. With swept wings and complex control surfaces, like slats on the leading edge and multi-part flaps on the trailing edge, it’s built to optimize lift and reduce aerodynamic drag at different phases of flight. Tucked into those wings are large fuel tanks, essential for long-haul routes.

Quick Facts: Wings

Primary function: Generate lift via pressure difference
Key parts: Leading edge, trailing edge, flaps, ailerons, fuel tanks, and sometimes landing gear
Materials: Typically made from aluminum or composite materials for strength and lightness
Extra lift: Many modern wings include winglets to reduce induced drag
Bonus trivia: Wings must be strong enough to flex significantly during turbulence without breaking—they’re designed to bend, not snap!

Empennage, Keeps It Together

Stability takes shape at the rear, in the empennage—or tail section. And while it might not be the flashiest part, it’s essential for stable, controlled flight. If the wings are the arms, think of the empennage as the spine and rudder of reason, constantly working to balance and steer the aircraft against shifting wind direction and aerodynamic forces.

Aircraft tails of Cessna 172S and Airbus A320

It typically includes the horizontal stabilizer and vertical stabilizer, along with their respective primary control surfaces, the elevator and rudder. These surfaces control pitch (up and down) and yaw (side to side), helping the pilot keep the aircraft aligned and flying true.

On a Cessna, the empennage is classic and straightforward. A conventional tail setup with a fixed stabilizer and movable elevator and rudder, all directly controlled through cables and rods from the flight deck. Over on the Airbus, however, it’s built for precision at high speeds. Its tail assembly includes hydraulically actuated surfaces, electronic sensors, and redundant systems—the components behind your smooth arrival gate-side.

Despite the tech differences, the mission is the same: to keep the aircraft steady, responsive, and pointed in the right direction.

Quick Facts: Tail Section

Also called: Tail assembly or stabilizing surfaces
Main components:
- Horizontal stabilizer (controls pitch with the elevator)
- Vertical stabilizer (controls yaw with the rudder)
Stability role: Helps maintain directional control, reduces drag, and balances the aircraft in flight
Location: Mounted at the rear fuselage, though some aircraft use T-tail or V-tail configurations
Bonus trivia: In flight, small adjustments made by the tail can feel huge—even a minor elevator input can change pitch dramatically, especially at higher speeds

Powerplant, Where the Thrust Happens

The powerplant is what gets the aircraft moving in the first place. It’s the aircraft’s engine and everything that makes it go—also known as the propulsion system. Whether it’s humming on a Cessna or roaring on a runway in an A320, the powerplant is responsible for generating the rotational energy that translates into forward motion.

For the Cessna, this means a reliable piston engine, a Lycoming IO-360-L2A, paired with a fixed-pitch propeller that has two or more blades. This setup may look modest, but it’s perfect for ground operations, low-speed flight, and learning the fundamentals of thrust and engine management.

Contrast that with the Airbus A320, which packs serious power: turbofan jet engines like the CFM56 or the newer Pratt & Whitney geared turbofans. These jet engines burn fuel with compressed air to generate massive amounts of thrust, delivering the performance needed for high-speed cruising and rapid takeoff. Plus, many are equipped with reverse thrust capabilities—because yes, jets can brake with air.

Aircraft powerplants of Cessna 172S and Airbus A320

Despite their differences in noise, size, and complexity, both types of engines turn fuel into forward motion while balancing performance, safety, and efficiency.

Quick Facts: Powerplant

Main function: Converts burning fuel into thrust to move the aircraft forward
Types of aircraft engines: Piston engines, turboprop engines, jet engines, gas turbines
Location: Typically mounted on the wings (A320) or nose (Cessna)
Bonus trivia: Jet engines can suck in and compress over a thousand pounds of air per second. That’s a lot of wind management!

Landing Gear, the Unsung Legs of Aviation?

Think of the landing gear as the aircraft’s legs: tough, shock-absorbing, and always first to hit the ground running (literally). Its primary function is to support the aircraft during ground operations like taxiing, takeoff, and landing, absorbing the impact and helping the aircraft steer safely on the runway.

Aircraft landing gear of Cessna 172S and Airbus A320

The Cessna is equipped with fixed landing gear—a no-fuss, always-visible setup with two main wheels under the wings and a nose wheel at the front. This tricycle configuration is simple and rugged, designed to handle bumps without the complexity (or maintenance needs) of retractable systems. It’s perfect for student pilots still perfecting their touchdown game.

Meanwhile, bigger aircraft like the A320 use a retractable landing gear system. A sleek, hydraulic setup that tucks away after takeoff to reduce aerodynamic drag and improve fuel efficiency. It includes two or more wheels per gear leg to support the heavier aircraft structure and is controlled from the flight deck, with fail-safes to ensure it deploys even in an emergency.

Quick Facts: Landing Gear

Primary role: Supports the aircraft on the ground; enables takeoff and landing
Landing gear types: Fixed, retractable, conventional (tailwheel), and tricycle
Bonus trivia: Some larger aircraft have more than 20 wheels in total—just ask the Airbus A380. That’s a lot of tires to change.

Bottom Line

From the compact Cessna 172S to the sleek Airbus A320, aircraft may vary wildly in size, speed, and complexity—but they all share the same core anatomy. The fuselage, wings, empennage, powerplant, and landing gear are essential building blocks that make flight possible, safe, and efficient.

Whether you’re dreaming of your first solo flight or just curious about what keeps you aloft at 35,000 feet, understanding these vital components gives you a deeper appreciation of aircraft design, performance, and function. And while modern planes are packed with cutting-edge tech—from electronic flight instruments to composite materials—they’re all built on the same tried-and-true foundation of aerodynamic forces and smart engineering.

Want to go deeper? Check out our articles on cockpit instruments or stall recovery on an Airbus. The more you know, the smoother your next takeoff will feel—at the very least, mentally.

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While modern simulators can replicate the flight experience and technical knowledge can be memorized, it is procedural fluency—under pressure and in coordination with others—that ultimately determines a pilot’s readiness for airline operations. Across Europe, training organizations have identified that cadets face significant challenges not in the technical realm, but in adherence to SOPs.

IATA Annual Safety Report 2024 revealed that 28% of flight path deviations and procedural incidents in CAT operations stem from non-adherence to SOPs or failures in crew coordination. Marcos Giner, Deputy Chief Flight Instructor for Type Rating at BAA Training, says that even cadets who “fly the plane correctly” often name procedural workload as their biggest hurdle.

“When you’re in a full flight simulator, it becomes evident that flying is the easiest part; the challenging aspect is mastering all the other critical tasks. When the dynamics of the cockpit intensify, the real challenge lies in the mental capacity to execute procedures reflexively, without losing situational awareness.”

The gap in procedural knowledge can lead to serious consequences. In Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) environments and real-world operations, failures in SOPs can result in confusion during approach, omissions in checklists during non-normal situations, and delayed responses to ATC. Bridging this gap requires more than simply accumulating simulator hours; it necessitates deliberate procedural immersion required from day one of type rating, complemented by strategic reinforcement, explains Giner.

This involves integrating SOP-driven briefings and flows during ground school and FTD sessions, not just in final simulations. Additionally, it’s crucial to incorporate multi-crew flows and closed-loop communications into LOFT and non-normal situation drills.

“What distinguishes confident first officers from the rest? It’s their ability to perform flows and checklists under pressure, every time. That procedural fluency is not acquired solely through checklists. It is strengthened through structured practice, scenario immersion, and real-world experience,” adds Giner.

While SOPs are designed to simplify and standardize tasks in the cockpit, they are not inherently intuitive, especially for cadets obtaining their type rating for the first time. In contrast to the more fluid dynamics of earlier training phases, SOPs require fixed sequencing, precise phraseology, and clear coordination. Giner emphasizes that for many cadets, this shift toward structured, multi-crew operations represents a significant challenge in both mindset and workload management.

“Without continuous exposure to SOP-centered training environments, cadets risk entering final simulator sessions still struggling to internalize timing, terminology, and flow logic. These habits may carry over into their real flights.”

EASA’s 2024 Safety Review also highlighted that errors in automation management and CRM disconnects are recurring deficiencies in new First Officers during initial line training evaluations, underscoring the need for procedural readiness before day one on the line.

That’s why the most effective type rating programs treat SOPs not merely as checklists to learn, but almost as a language to master. The goal is not just memory, but instinctive reaction, creating a mental model so solid that cadets can act reliably even in critical, high-pressure situations.

“Training environments must go beyond showing cadets what SOPs look like. They need to let them live them. This means training in flow discipline, cockpit logic, and decision pacing, not just regulatory compliance,” notes Giner. “As cockpits become increasingly automated, the expectation isn’t doing less but doing the right thing at the right time. SOPs are essential for maintaining that timing precision. The confidence to act decisively under pressure is cultivated through constant exposure to the same procedural logic they will face in the line.”

SOP proficiency remains one of the clearest indicators of whether a cadet is ready for airline operations. It reflects their ability to manage complexity, adapt under pressure, and work in sync with their crew. Developing this skill requires more than exposure—it demands consistency, context, and guidance from instructors who understand both the procedures and the environment they support. For training organizations, the goal isn’t to produce compliant pilots, but capable ones; professionals who view SOPs not as a formality, but as the operational backbone of every flight.

Securing EASA approval is a significant milestone for any Approved Training Organization (ATO), and particularly so for one based in Vietnam. As one of the most respected aviation regulators globally, EASA applies rigorous technical and operational standards to all FSTD evaluations. Meeting these standards demands precision across areas such as flight model performance, motion systems, and visual fidelity. Obtaining this certification not only affirms the technical level of our Vietnam training center but also demonstrates our continued commitment to delivering aviation training at a level recognized and trusted across Europe and beyond.

“This certification marks an important step forward—not just for our local operations, but for the entire BAA Training network,” says Vytautas Jankauskas, Managing Director at BAA Training Vietnam. “It shows that we are not simply maintaining EASA-level quality; we are trusted to uphold it independently. This recognition confirms that our growth in Vietnam is grounded in a commitment to meet and maintain the highest training standards in the industry.”

“The EASA approval for us as an FSTD operator in Vietnam is a strong reflection of how we approach international expansion,” adds Marijus Ravoitis, BAA Training’s CEO. “It’s a strong validation that our international operations meet the same high standards we’ve built our reputation on in Europe. As we continue to grow, quality remains our foundation, and this approval proves we’re scaling with both intention and integrity.” This milestone also signals a broader shift in the region’s aviation training landscape. EASA-approved FSTDs remain relatively rare in Southeast Asia, and this certification positions the Vietnam-based ATO among a select group of providers operating at this level. It enhances trust among global airline partners and broadens opportunities for cadets seeking qualifications recognized across EASA member states.

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So, what makes an airplane fly, then? It all comes down to four invisible forces constantly negotiating midair—lift, weight, thrust, and drag. These aren’t just technical terms from a textbook. They’re the choreographers behind every smooth takeoff, steep climb, and graceful landing. Let’s pull back the curtain on the physics that make flight possible—and yes, a little magical too.

What Is Force?

Before we get into how airplanes stay aloft, let’s talk about forces—not the sci-fi kind, but the everyday kind. A force is any push or pull that gets things moving, slows them down, or changes their direction. You feel it when you shove a heavy suitcase into an overhead bin or when your bag resists being dragged through the terminal.

In aviation, forces shape every second of flight. Whether an aircraft lifts off smoothly or struggles against the wind comes down to how these forces interact—and whether they’re cooperating or clashing.

How Do Airplanes Stay in the Sky?

So, now that we’ve met the four forces, how do they all come together to make an airplane fly? Think of it like a very precise game of tug-of-war—except it’s happening in all directions at once.

Lift pulls the airplane up, weight pulls it down, thrust moves it forward, and drag resists that forward motion. For an airplane to take off, the engines (or propellers) need to create enough thrust to overcome drag, and the wings need to generate enough lift to beat gravity at its own game. When these forces are balanced just right, you get stable, controlled flight. Too much drag? The plane slows down. Not enough lift? Gravity wins. But when everything clicks—when thrust overpowers drag and lift overcomes weight—you get the magic moment where metal leaves the Earth and becomes airborne.

The Four Forces of Flight

At the core of aerodynamics are the four forces that act on an aircraft: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. These forces are in constant interaction, and understanding them is key to flying.

Lift

Lift is the upward force generated by an aircraft’s wings. It acts perpendicular to the relative wind and opposes weight. But to really understand lift, we need to first talk about air.

Air may be invisible, but it’s made up of molecules that have mass. That mass means air has weight, and because of that, it applies force. The shape of the wing, known as an airfoil, plays a crucial role in creating this lift.

Enter: Bernoulli’s Principle. This scientific concept states that faster-moving air has lower pressure, and slower-moving air has higher pressure. The curved upper surface of the wing causes air to speed up as it flows over the top, creating lower pressure above the wing than below it. This pressure difference is what lifts the airplane into the sky.

A graph of how the Bernoulli's Principle works. — How Bernoulli’s Principle works.

You can try this with a simple experiment: take a strip of paper and blow over the top of it. The paper lifts—that’s Bernoulli in action.

A Bernoulli’s Strip experiment to see the lift in action.

Pilots also control lift by adjusting the angle of attack (AoA) and airspeed. More angle, more lift—up to a point. Beyond that, the airflow breaks down and the wing stalls (we’ll cover that below). Air density also matters; high altitudes and hot or humid conditions thin the air, which affects how much lift is generated.

Weight

Weight is the force of gravity pulling the aircraft toward the Earth. It acts through the center of gravity (CG)—a crucial point that affects balance and stability.

Managing weight is equally about how much you’re carrying and how it’s distributed. For instance, the position of the CG changes as fuel is consumed. On short flights, this shift is minimal. But on long-haul operations, an out-of-balance CG can affect handling, increase fuel consumption, or even lead to unsafe conditions.

Thrust

Thrust is what propels the airplane forward and is produced by the engines. Without it, there’s no movement—no air over the wings—no lift.

There are different types of engines, but most commonly, jet engines and propellers generate thrust in aircraft. Propeller-powered planes like Cessna, Diamond, Piper, and Cirrus are widely used in initial pilot flight training. These propellers act like spinning wings, using airfoil shapes to create thrust by accelerating air backwards.

Jet engines produce thrust by rapidly expelling exhaust gases. They’re efficient at higher speeds and altitudes but come with their own quirks—for instance, a slight delay when pilots adjust throttle settings. To help with this, many jets have different idle thrust settings on the ground versus in the air to reduce reaction times.

Managing thrust is essential across all phases of flight—from rapid acceleration during takeoff to precision control during cruise and landing.

Drag

Drag is the aerodynamic force that resists forward motion. It works opposite to thrust and comes in two main forms:

Parasitic drag: Includes form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.
Induced drag: A byproduct of generating lift.

Pilots and engineers constantly work to reduce drag through aerodynamic design—smooth surfaces, streamlined shapes, and features like winglets. But drag isn’t always the enemy. During landing, it’s a helpful force that slows the aircraft down. Spoilers and air brakes are designed to increase drag when needed, making descent and landing safer and more controlled.

Beyond the Basics

The Boundary Layer and Flow Types

The boundary layer is the thin layer of air close to the aircraft’s surface where friction effects are strongest. Within this layer, airflow can be:

Laminar: Smooth and consistent, generating less drag but more prone to separation.
Turbulent: Chaotic and mixed, causing more drag but staying attached to surfaces longer.

Laminar flow with turbulent flow — Laminar and turbulent flows visualized.

Pilots may not be aerodynamics engineers, but being aware of these differences helps. Maintaining laminar flow when possible reduces drag, but turbulence can sometimes be beneficial—especially to delay a stall by keeping air attached to the wing longer.

Advanced aircraft have systems to manipulate airflow and monitor boundary layer behavior, but at its core, it’s all about managing the relationship between air, surface, and speed.

Angle of Attack and Stall

The angle of attack (AoA) is the angle between the wing’s chord line and the relative wind. Increasing AoA increases lift—up to a critical point. Beyond that point, the smooth airflow detaches from the wing’s upper surface, and the wing stalls.

Stalls can happen at any airspeed or altitude if the critical AoA is exceeded. This is why modern aircraft often have AoA indicators and audible stall warnings. Pilots must monitor and manage AoA carefully, especially during slower flight, steep turns, or landing approaches.

Bottom Line

Airplanes don’t fly because of luck or mystery—they fly because four invisible forces are constantly working together in careful balance. Lift, weight, thrust, and drag may be pushing and pulling in different directions, but when they hit just the right harmony, flight happens. It’s science, yes—but it still feels a little like magic every time wheels leave the runway.

What is PAPI

How PAPI Works

Reading PAPI Lights

Why PAPI Matters for a Student Pilot

PAPI Isn’t Always the Right Cue

Bottom Line

The EASA Task-to-Tool Model Explained

A Strategic Shift in Simulator Use

Implications for Instructors

Looking Ahead

What Does Fly-By-Wire Actually Mean?

When Was Fly-By-Wire Invented

Roots In Military Aviation

How a Fly-By-Wire Control System Works?

Examples of Fly-By-Wire Aircraft

Misconceptions About FBW System

Fly-By-Wire vs Cable

Bottom Line

A Start of It All

Working as an Aviation Engineer

Being a Woman in Aviation Engineering—Both Challenging and Empowering

Fuselage, the Backbone of Flight

Quick Facts: Fuselage

Wings, the Lift-Makers

Quick Facts: Wings

Empennage, Keeps It Together

Quick Facts: Tail Section

Powerplant, Where the Thrust Happens

Quick Facts: Powerplant

Landing Gear, the Unsung Legs of Aviation?

Quick Facts: Landing Gear

Bottom Line

What Is Force?

How Do Airplanes Stay in the Sky?

The Four Forces of Flight

Lift

Weight

Thrust

Drag

Beyond the Basics

The Boundary Layer and Flow Types

Angle of Attack and Stall

Bottom Line

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